En pocas palabras. Javier J. Jaspe
Washington
D.C.
Esta
es la novena entrega de una serie relacionada con el interesante libro: “El
Norte – La epopeya olvidada de la Norteamérica Hispana”, escrito por la
destacada historiadora, Carrie Gibson. Editorial EDAF, 2022, 575 páginas. La
edición original es en el idioma inglés y la traducción al español que usamos
es de Pablo García Hervás.
Carrie
Gibson obtuvo su “doctorado en la Universidad de Cambridge….Ha
trabajado como periodista en The Guardian y como colaboradora en otras
publicaciones, además de la BBC. Su investigación la ha llevado a México, el
Caribe y los Estados Unidos. Reside en Londres”.
Sobre
el libro se ha escrito:
"Durante
mucho tiempo, los Estados Unidos se han preciado de su herencia anglosajona por
encima de todas las demás. No obstante, tal como Carrie Gibson replica en El
Norte, con gran profundidad y nitidez, la nación tiene unas raíces hispanas
mucho más antiguas, las cuales han permanecido mucho tiempo ignoradas y
marginadas. Este pasado hispánico precede en un siglo a la llegada del
Mayflower, y es de todo punto igual de importante a la hora de dar forma a la
nación tal como existe hoy en día.... (The New York Times Book Review)"
El
propósito de la serie no es realizar un análisis del libro, sino publicar la
cronología de los acontecimientos clave que allí se incluyen (páginas 462 –
470), ocurridos entre los años 1492 y 2017, a fin de acompañarlos con unos
breves agregados que recogen principalmente textos encontrados en Internet,
relacionados con los enunciados que se utilizan a lo largo de dicha cronología.
A
efecto de diferenciar la cronología original transcrita en negrillas, los
agregados se transcriben en itálicas, bien textualmente o resumidos y/o
reordenados en su presentación, con las referencias a sus respectivos enlaces
en Internet. Cuando la cronología original incluye diversos hechos en un mismo
año, estos hechos son presentados separadamente bajo dicho año.
En esta novena entrega se incluyen hechos históricos que van desde la fundación de Santa Fe en Nuevo México (1610) hasta el comienzo de la revuelta de los indios pueblo contra los españoles (1680). Veamos:
EBSCO
Authored By:
Orman, Lisa Collins
The
Santa Fe Historic Site, located in north central New Mexico, is the oldest city
in the United States to continuously serve as a territorial Pueblo Indian
villages existing in the region as early as 600 C.E. and a continuous presence
of ancient peoples dating back to around 3000 B.C.E. Santa Fe's early history
includes significant cultural developments among the Pueblo communities, as
well as the arrival of Spanish settlers who established La Villa de Santa Fe
amidst complex power struggles between ecclesiastical state capital, having
been founded in 1610. This site has a rich history that predates Spanish
colonization, with evidence of various and civil leaders.
Today, Santa Fe is renowned for its historical and cultural
offerings, including the Palace of the Governors, which dates from the city's
founding and now serves as a museum, and the Chapel of San Miguel, one of the
oldest churches in the U.S. Visitors can explore the vibrant Plaza, the End of
the Trail Monument, and numerous Pueblo villages that showcase enduring
traditions. Additionally, the city is home to the Santa Fe Opera and hosts the
prestigious Indian Market, celebrating Native American art. This blend of
historical significance and cultural richness continues to attract travelers
interested in the diverse heritage of the region…..
Arrival
of the Spanish
The
Spanish settlement of La Villa de Santa Fe in 1610 began with a classic
showdown between church and state. This situation was in part set up by the
history of ecclesiastical and civil leaders in Spain. As they had viewed their
victory over the Islamic Moors to be a holy crusade, so the kings of Spain now
saw their conquest of the New World as a holy mission to Christianize the
Native American population. Therefore, when Pedro de Peralta set out to found
La Villa de Santa Fe, he was accompanied by numerous clergy. Initially,
Governor Peralta shared power harmoniously with the local missionaries, at that
time led by Friar Alonso de Peinado at their ecclesiastical headquarters in
Domingo Pueblo. Trouble began in 1612, when Friar Isidro Ordóñez arrived with twelve
new missionary recruits from Mexico City and claimed to have orders to relieve
Peinado of his duties. These orders were later deemed fraudulent, but this
discovery was made only after Ordóñez had irrevocably changed the history of
Santa Fe.
The
first sign of trouble came almost immediately upon Ordóñez’s arrival, for he
declared he had orders that the soldiers and settlers who wanted to leave could
return to Mexico. This announcement was in direct conflict with Peralta’s
efforts to strengthen the settlement. Ordóñez’s plan was to drive Peralta and
the government out of Santa Fe so that it could become exclusively the province
of the mission, and he tried many tactics to undermine the governor. The next
serious dispute between the two men came in May, 1613, when the friar tried to
interrupt the governor’s annual tax collection of corn and blankets from the
Native Americans because it fell too close to the Feast of the Pentecost. The
two men argued over whose authority ruled in the matter; Ordóñez ultimately
displayed a document naming him the agent of the Holy Office of the Inquisition
for New Mexico and threatened to excommunicate the governor if he did not call
off the tribute collection. When Peralta refused, Ordóñez made good on his
threat. Later he absolved Peralta, but the incident set the stage for later
scuffles.
That
summer, Peralta made a failed attempt to banish Ordóñez to the Santo Domingo
ecclesiastical headquarters and lost the support of many settlers when another
friar ended up shot and wounded in the argument. This scene gave Ordóñez the
upper hand, and he and his followers laid a trap for Peralta. When Peralta
tried to return to Mexico City to tell the viceroy of Ordóñez’s actions,
Ordóñez and his men arrested the governor and his entourage. Peralta remained
imprisoned for eight months before escaping, but Ordóñez tracked him down and
arrested him again.
Finally,
after a new governor, Bernardino de Ceballos, was appointed, Peralta was
allowed to return to Mexico City, where he reported to Spanish officials his
treatment at the hands of Ordóñez. Peralta had papers to prove his accusations,
and Ordóñez was summoned to Mexico City and reprimanded. The conflict between
these two leaders lay the foundation for continuing trouble between church and
state for the next seventy years…..
https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/santa-fe-historic-site
Santa Fe
The city different
Santa Fe’s History
https://www.santafe.org/visiting-santa-fe/about-santa-fe/history/
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Santa Fe, Nuevo
México | Historia, Cultura, Economía y Misterios del Suroeste
Time Traveler
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QhSajmrIFB0&t=3sxxxxxxxxx
Santa Fe Plaza
Lugares INAH
https://lugares.inah.gob.mx/es/node/6214
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Nuevo Mexico: el estado de EEUU que conserva la huella más intensa
del imperio español
Historia de España
Sarah Romero
El Imperio español dejó, durante varios
siglos, una herencia que aún a día de hoy, sigue más viva que nunca. Aunque ya
hemos hablado de Florida, como uno de los
lugares con rastro español, hay un estado de Estados Unidos que, sin duda,
conserva los vestigios hispanos de forma más profunda, y visible: se trata de
Nuevo México.
Este
territorio, oficialmente admitido como el estado número 47 de la Unión en
1912, fue
durante más de tres siglos parte del vasto Imperio español que abarcaba
territorios de los cinco continentes, siendo uno de los
imperios más poderosos de la historia. En el caso de Nuevo México, su nombre,
sus ciudades, su arquitectura, sus fiestas, su gastronomía y hasta su forma de
hablar, siguen evidenciando esa herencia castellana en Norteamérica.
Imágenes…..
¿Por qué se llama Nuevo
México?
Contrario
a lo que muchos piensan, Nuevo México no fue llamado así por México, el país.
De hecho, el nombre de Nuevo México es anterior al país mexicano. La
denominación “Nuevo México” fue utilizada por los colonizadores españoles en el
siglo XVI para describir los enormes territorios que se
encontraban al norte de lo que ahora es México creyendo que podría ser una zona
rica en oro y plata (como México).
El
término se inspiró en el Valle del Río Grande, al sur de Texas -precisamente la
zona que separa México de Estados Unidos- y que estaba habitado por culturas
indígenas avanzadas, como los pueblos Apache y Navajo, que recordaban a los
españoles a las civilizaciones del altiplano mexicano.
La colonización formal comenzó en
1598, cuando el conquistador español Juan de Oñate y Salazar fundó el primer
asentamiento en San Juan de
los Caballeros, y en 1610 se estableció Santa Fe como capital de la provincia
de Nueva España. Fue el primer asentamiento europeo permanente al oeste del
Misisipi y, de hecho, sigue siendo la capital más antigua del país.
Imagen
Misiones religiosas y
sincretismo cultural
Durante los siglos XVII y XVIII, frailes de la orden franciscana
(como Fray Esteban de Perea) construyeron cerca de 80 misiones por todo el
territorio. Estos templos no solo sirvieron para evangelizar a los nativos,
sino que también fueron centros de educación, organización social y control
político.
Pero
la colonización no fue pacífica. En 1680, los pueblos indígenas organizaron la
célebre Rebelión Pueblo, una de las revueltas más exitosas contra el dominio
europeo en América que estuvo liderada por el religioso tewa Popé (de
ahí que también se conozca como rebelión de Popé), en la que fallecieron 400
españoles; los que seguían vivos fueron expulsados de aquellas tierras,
obligándolos a abandonar sus posesiones, durante 12 años. Cuando regresaron, la
estrategia había cambiado diametralmente: para evitar nuevas rebeliones, el
Imperio español permitió la coexistencia entre el catolicismo y las religiones
nativas; una mezcla que a día de hoy pervive.
Imagen
¿Y qué ciudades de Nuevo
México tienen acento español?
Nuevo México es el estado con mayor concentración de topónimos
españoles en Estados Unidos, y algunos ejemplos clave son: Santa Fe (“Santa Fe
de la Vera Cruz”), Las Cruces, Albuquerque, Española, Socorro, San Miguel,
Santa Rosa, Los Lunas, Tierra Amarilla o Las Vegas (sí, hay otra en Nuevo
México).
Y
esto no es todo. La herencia española también se percibe en otros lugares, como en
nombres de formaciones geográficas como ríos (Río Grande),
cordilleras (Sangre de Cristo), desiertos (Jornada del Muerto) o montañas
(Sierra Blanca).
Imagen…..
Y
es que la cultura española no solo se conserva en los nombres; también en sus
costumbres, música, la comida y las celebraciones. Por ejemplo, en el mes de septiembre,
durante las fiestas de Santa Fe, se celebra la quema de Zozobra (“Old Man Gloom”), un gigantesco
muñeco que simboliza las penas del año, al estilo de las
fallas de Valencia…..
Y
hay mucho más: los escudos de ciudades como Santa Fe, Las Cruces o
Albuquerque incluyen símbolos castellanos como leones,
castillos o cruces, recordando la herencia de Castilla y León en sus emblemas
más significativos.
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VBG – Val Brier Group
Santa Fe: The Oldest State Capital In The United States
https://www.valbriergroup.com/blog/santa-fe-history
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Beyond Origins of NM Families
Founders of Santa Fe, 1610
Jose Antonio Essquivel
https://sites.google.com/site/beyondoriginsofnmfamilies/founders-of-santa-fe-1610
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1620: llega el Mayflower, y los peregrinos de
a bordo fundan la colonia de Plymouth.
The 'Plymouth Pilgrims' 2007
Perhaps
no event has been mythologized more than the venture undertaken in 1620 by
religious Separatists to form a new society in America. The Plymouth Pilgrims
are one of the most significant groups of immigrants in history. They were
English people who sought to escape the religious controversy and economic
problems of their time by emigrating to America.
Many of the Pilgrims were members of a Puritan sect known as Separatists who
broke away from the Church of England. They committed themselves to a life
based on the Bible. Most of these Separatists were farmers, poorly educated and
without social or political standing.
In order to escape harassment and religious persecution in England, the
Pilgrims emigrated to Amsterdam in 1608, and just one year after the move to
Leiden, where they could practice their new-found religion in freedom. After 12
years, the congregation voted to emigrate to America to found a new society.
Unable to finance the costs of the emigration with their own resources, they
negotiated a financial agreement with a prominent London iron merchant.
Although less than half of the group's members decided to leave Leiden, they
hired The Speedwell, a small ship to carry them from the Netherlands, to
Southampton, England, to meet up with The Mayflower to join another group of
Separatists.
Both ships planned to sail together to Northern Virginia. After two attempts on
this courageous journey, the most they covered was about 300 miles before the
ships had to sail to Plymouth, England, for much needed repairs on the leaking
Speedwell. Aggravated with the amount of time spent in the failure to make The
Speedwell seaworthy a decision was made to transfer the cargo and many of the
passengers to The Mayflower.
On September 6, The Mayflower set sail from Plymouth, England, and headed for
America. The delay in the journey meant that many of the Pilgrims had already
been living onboard ships for nearly 6 weeks. With 102 passengers, chickens,
goats and dogs, the first half of the voyage went fairly smoothly, the only
major problem was seasickness. Their living environment was dark and damp.
Their food consisted of salted meat and biscuits and beer to drink. There was
no fresh food or fresh water.
By October, they began encountering a number of Atlantic storms that made the
voyage treacherous. With waves reaching more than 5 feet high, the westerly
gales battered the ship, and the movement of the rolling and pitching took its
toll on many of its passengers. Several times, the wind was so strong it was
too dangerous to use the ship's sails so they drifted where the weather took
them.
The Pilgrims intended to land in the area known as Northern Virginia, which at
the time included the Hudson River in the modern State of New York. Due to bad
weather and risking shipwreck in trying to reach their original destination,
the Pilgrims decided to stay and explore Cape Cod and anchored in what is now
Provincetown Harbour.
After experiencing an arduous journey crossing the Atlantic Ocean, they decided
to begin construction on their plantation and buildings.
For around the next six weeks, the Pilgrims would send out many exploring
parties, seeking out a suitable place to build their colony.
The Pilgrims started constructing their homes and storehouses in late December
1620, but only managed to get a couple built before and during the first
winter.
In April 1621, The Mayflower sailed back to England. Not one of the passengers
chose to leave with the ship. The surviving pilgrims had recovered their health
and began planting native corn. By autumn they had started to prepare a few of
their homes against the winter, so the Governor called for a festivity of their
harvest, a Thanksgiving shared and celebrated.
During the next few years, several additional ships had arrived carrying
passengers, including The Fortune in 1621, and The Anne in 1623. The Fortune
brought mostly young men to contribute labour and The Anne brought many of the
wives and children to the colony - many of the men had left behind their wives
and children in England until the colony was better established….
https://conwaystewart.com/en-us/blogs/archive/the-plymouth-pilgrims-limited-edition-2006?shpxid=6458ae0d-db9c-470b-9648-01e2500769b9
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Mayflower: el escabroso legado de los
peregrinos que llegaron a EE.UU. hace 400 años
By Nick Bryant
BBC News
20 Septiembre 2020
https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-54209078
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Smithsonian
National
Postal Museum
Mayflower
Parte de Inglaterra Hacia el Nuevo Mundo
16
de septiembre de 1620
Virtual Exhibit
https://postalmuseum.si.edu/exhibition/mayflower-parte-de-inglaterra-hacia-el-nuevo-mundo
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1620
Mayflower arrives at Plymouth Harbor
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/december-18/mayflower-docks-at-plymouth-harbor
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The Mayflower story
https://www.visitplymouth.co.uk/explore/plymouths-history/mayflower-400/the-story
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Mayflower and Mayflower Compact
//////////////////////
1670: se establece el asentamiento
inglés de Charles Town (la actual Charleston, en Carolina del Sur).
National Park Service
Charleston Community
History
After
Charles II was restored to the English throne, he granted the chartered
Carolina territory to eight of his loyal friends, known as the Lord
Proprietors, in 1663. It took seven years before the Lords could arrange for
settlement, the first being that of Charles Town. The community named for the
King Charles I was established by English settlers in 1670 across the Ashley
River from the city's current location. It was soon chosen by Anthony
Ashley-Cooper, one of the Lord Proprietors, to become a "great port
towne," a destiny which the city fulfilled. By 1680, the settlement had
grown, joined by others from England, Barbados, and Virginia, and relocated to
its current peninsular location. The capital of the Carolina colony, Charleston
was the center for further expansion and the southernmost point of English
settlement during the late 1600s.
The settlement was
often subject to attack from sea and from land. Periodic assaults from Spain
and France, who still contested England's claims to the region, were combined
with resistance from American Indians as well as pirate raids. Charleston's
colonists erected a fortification wall around the small settlement to aid in
its defense. The only building to remain from the Walled City is the Powder
Magazine, where the city's supply of gun powder was stored.
A 1680 plan for the
new settlement, the Grand Modell, laid out "the model of an exact regular
town," and the future for the growing community. Land surrounding the
intersection of Meeting and Broad Streets was set aside for a Civic Square.
Over time it became known as the Four Corners of the Law, referring to the
various arms of governmental and religious law presiding over the square and
the growing city. St. Michael’s Episcopal, Charleston's oldest and most noted church,
was built on the southeast corner in 1752. The following year the Capitol of
the colony was erected across the square. Because of its prominent position
within the city and its elegant architecture, the building signaled to
Charleston's citizens and visitors its importance within the British colonies.
Provincial court met on the ground floor, the Commons House of Assembly and the
Royal Governor's Council Chamber met on the second floor.
While the earliest
settlers primarily came from England, colonial Charleston was also home to a
mixture of ethnic and religious groups. French, Scottish, Irish and Germans
migrated to the developing seacoast town, representing numerous Protestant
denominations, as well as Catholicism and Judaism. Sephardic Jews (of Spanish
and Portuguese ancestry) migrated to the city in such numbers that Charleston
became one of the largest Jewish communities in North America. The Jewish
Coming Street Cemetery, first established in 1762, attests to their long
standing presence in the community. The first Anglican church, St. Philip’s
Episcopal, was built in 1682, although later destroyed by fire and relocated to
its current location. Enslaved people also comprised a major portion of the
population, and were active in the city's religious community. Both free black
and enslaved Charlestonians helped establish the Old Bethel United Methodist
Church in 1797, and the congregation of the Emanuel A.M.E. Church stems from a
religious group organized solely by African Americans, free and enslaved, in
1791.
By
the mid-18th century Charleston had become a bustling trade center, and the
wealthiest and largest city south of Philadelphia. Rice and indigo had been
successfully cultivated by gentleman planters in the surrounding coastal
lowcountry, while merchants profited from the successful shipping industry. As
the relationship between the colonists and England deteriorated, Charleston
became a focal point in the ensuing Revolution. In protest of the Tea Act of
1773, which embodied the concept of "taxation without
representation," Charlestonians confiscated tea and stored it in the
Exchange and Customs House. Representatives from all over the colony came to
the Exchange in 1774 to elect delegates to the Continental Congress, the group
responsible for drafting the Declaration of Independence; and South Carolina
declared its independence from the crown on the steps of the Exchange….
https://www.nps.gov/articles/charleston-community-history.htm
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South
Carolina Historic Society
April 1670: Settlers from England Establish Charles Town
https://schistory.org/april-1670/
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EBSCO
Charles Town
Lavender, Abraham D.
https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/religion-and-philosophy/charles-town
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Charleston SC Official Website
History
https://www.charleston-sc.gov/2010/History
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Charleston County Public Library
Charles Town’s Growing Pains
Charleston Time Machine
Nic Butler Ph.D.
https://www.ccpl.org/charleston-time-machine/charles-towns-growing-pains
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The Edge Of An
Empire | Charles Towne Landing | British Empire | 17th Century Colony | Project
Past
Project Past
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GFZZWEPYwM4
////////////////////
1680: comienza la revuelta de los
indios pueblo contra los españoles, a quienes expulsan de muchos de sus
poblados, causando unos quinientos muertos y obligándolos a retirarse a El
Paso, al sur del Río Bravo.
Pueblo Revolt
August 6, 2021
Monthly Feature: Pueblo Revolt
On August 10,
1680, the Pueblo nations of New Mexico rose up against the Spanish colonizers.
For over eighty years, the Pueblo people suffered violence, cruelty, and
hunger; exploitation of labor and resources; harassment and persecution for
practicing long-held religious traditions that are interwoven in daily life;
and psychological and physical stress. Pueblo leaders realized negotiations
with the Spaniards was useless.
Each Pueblo
community is an autonomous nation. Never before had they banded together. The
Pueblo Revolt of 1680 was the most successful uprising against colonial
intruders by an assembly of Indigenous people who had developed a reputation as
a peaceful tribe. After being pushed out, the Spaniards were not able to
successfully return for twelve years.
The Revolt
helped ensure cultural survival and demonstrated the resilience of the Pueblo
people. It is one reason the Pueblos continue to maintain their lands,
languages, customs, and religion.….
https://indianpueblo.org/pueblo-revolt/
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The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History
History Now, Issue 28 (Summer 2011
American Indians
The Pueblo Revolt
By Edward Countryman
In 1680 the people known collectively as "Pueblos"
rebelled against their Spanish overlords in the American Southwest. Spaniards
had dominated them, their lives, their land, and their souls for eight decades.
The Spanish had established and maintained their rule with terror, beginning
with Juan de Oñate’s invasion in 1598. When the people of Acoma resisted, Oñate
ordered that one leg be chopped from every man over fifteen and the rest of the
population be enslaved, setting a pattern that lasted four-score years. Now,
rising virtually as one, the Pueblos drove out Spanish soldiers and
authorities. The rebels allowed many Spaniards to flee, but twenty-one
Franciscan priests died at their hands, and they sacked mission churches across
their land. It took twelve years for Spanish troops to reconquer Pueblo
country. They never did conquer the Hopi, who had been the westernmost
contributors to the rebellion.
Three hundred and thirty years later, Pueblo people still live
in ancient villages across the Southwest, in many ways on their own terms. A
proud statue of the rebellion’s leader, Popé (or Po’pay), is one of New
Mexico’s two pieces in the National Statuary Hall in the United States Capitol.
The Pueblo Revolt was the greatest and most successful rebellion of its sort in
North American history. What happened? What did it signify? What did it
achieve?
Unquestionably, one
of revolt’s dimensions was religious. From Pecos Pueblo near the edge of the
Great Plains to Acoma and Zuni in western New Mexico, Pueblo people had had
enough of Christianity, after eight decades of living in what historian Ramón
Gutiérrez has described as an imposed theocratic utopia. Backed by armed force
and not reluctant to use the whip, Catholic missionaries had set out to destroy
the ancestral Pueblo world in every respect, including what people could
believe and how they could marry, work, live their lives, and pray. When the
rebels could capture Franciscan priests, they killed them, sometimes after
torturing them. They destroyed Catholic images, tore down mission churches, and
defiled the vessels of the Catholic Mass. They put an end to marriages on
Christian terms. They restored the kivas where Pueblo men had honored their
ancestral Kachinas.
With Catholic symbols and Spanish practices gone, the Pueblos set out to
restore the lives their ancestors had lived.
Po’pay’s great
achievement was to coordinate the Pueblos. The enormous, open distances of the
Southwest posed a major problem. He solved it by dispatching runners carrying
knotted ropes, each separate knot to be untied, one day at a time, until the
chosen day, August 11, 1680. The runners had to deal with language differences
as well. There was no distinct "Pueblo" people, speaking one language
and sharing one culture. Instead, the Spanish conquerors had found Keres,
Tompiros, Tewas, Tiwas, Towas, Piros, and Zuni, all living in similar-looking
adobe villages (pueblos,
hence the name), as well as Utes, Navajos, and Apaches. Their languages
differed greatly, and their relations with one another were not always
friendly. Nonetheless, Po’pay’s plan worked nearly perfectly. The Spanish
rulers in Santa Fe received only the barest warning before the revolt broke
out…………………………………………………………
………………….
For a very long time, the twelve years of Pueblo independence,
from 1680 to 1692, remained virtually blank in historical terms. Knowing the
importance of written records to the Europeans from their eight decades of
subordination, the rebels destroyed Spanish documents and returned to their
ancestral ways of remembering, thus closing off conventional historical
inquiry. About the only clear point seems to be that Po’pay quickly lost the
power he had gained as the revolt’s leader. But archaeologist Matthew Liebmann
has reconstructed the historical material culture of Jemez Pueblo (known to its
own people as Walatowa) in the mountains northwest of Albuquerque. Working with
Walatowa’s present-day people, he has linked archaeological evidence with their
traditions and pieced together an account of what happened between the
overthrow of the Spaniards and their return. Liebmann’s project is presently
making its way from a doctoral dissertation to a scholarly book. When the book
appears, it will open yet another dimension of the history of the Great Pueblo
Revolt.
The Spanish return in 1692 was a military conquest, just as 1598
had been, but it did not lead to a full restoration of their authority, due in
part to the Spanish themselves. Secular Spanish officials began trying to rule
"their" Indians in enlightened terms. They saw New Mexico not as
mission country, where the friars had to be protected as they went about their
task of saving Native souls, but rather as a buffer zone, protecting the
precious silver mines from the not-so-distant French and even the British. They
saw the New Mexican people as possible allies in the game of transcontinental
empire, to be courted rather than conquered. The self-sacrificing,
martyrdom-seeking zealotry of seventeenth-century Franciscan
"Conquistadors of the Spirit" slackened into routine business.
How the Pueblo villagers took advantage of changed Spanish goals
and worked out their own terms for dealing with the Spaniards remains to be
fully explored, but the results have proven permanent. Consider Acoma, high on
a mesa west of Albuquerque. Its people have inhabited the same site for more
than a millennium, rebuilding their village after the conquest of 1598. From a
distance, Acoma’s most visible structure is the fortress-like church of San
Esteban del Rey. Acoma people constructed the church between 1629 and 1640,
hauling the raw material for its high, thick walls up from the foot of the
mesa. The church survived the rebellion and it remains in use, but a short walk
takes visitors past ladders that lead to the rooftop entrances of kivas, where
the old ways also endure. Spanish friars, soldiers, and civil administrators
had tried to suppress those traditions, but they could not do it. Property at
Acoma descends from mother to youngest daughter, which is the traditional Acoma
way. For legal purposes, Acoma and the other eighteen functioning pueblos are
self-governing tribes, not sub-units of New Mexico.
If the purpose of the rebellion was simply to drive out Spanish
ways, it failed, because the Spaniards came back and remained until Mexican
independence in 1821. The Spanish were followed by two successor republics,
Mexico and, ultimately, the United States. There could be no complete return to
how Pueblo people had lived prior to the Spanish conquest. But if the rebels’
purpose was to reassert their own ways in a new setting, their rebellion
succeeded, because Acoma and places like it survive, on terms that their people
set for themselves.
Edward
Countryman, University Distinguished Professor of History at Southern
Methodist University, is author of such books as Enjoy the Same Liberty: Black Americans and the
Revolutionary Era (2011); A People in Revolution: The
American Revolution and Political Society in New York, 1760–1790 (1981), winner of the
Bancroft Prize; and Shane (1999, with Evonne Von Heussen-Countryman). He is
working on a study of how American Indians learned about the problems that
Europeans were bringing to them during the colonial era
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Indigenous Mexico
An Entire Frontier in Flames:
The Regional Implications of the Pueblo Revolt (1680-1696)
By John Schmal
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Trees, Water and People
The Pueblo Revolt
https://treeswaterpeople.org/blog/the-pueblo-revolt
///////////////
Library of Congress Blogs
In Custodia Legis
Law Librarians of Congress
1680 –
the Pueblo Revolt
October 31, 2013
Posted by: Margaret Wood
https://blogs.loc.gov/law/2013/10/1680-the-pueblo-revolt/
///////////////////////
España en la historia
Rebelión de los indios Pueblo (10 de
agosto de 1680)
Manuel de Francisco
https://espanaenlahistoria.org/efemerides/rebelion-de-los-indios-pueblo-10-de-agosto-de-1680/
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